FROM CRISIS RESPONSE TO ROUTINE GOVERNANCE: THE UNEVEN INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF CHINA–PAKISTAN LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION
Keywords:
China–Pakistan relations, Non-traditional security, International police cooperation, Legalization, Focusing events, China-Pakistan Economic CorridorAbstract
China and Pakistan have built a dense legal framework for law enforcement cooperation, yet much of the cooperation it supports has been assembled in the aftermath of attacks on Chinese nationals. This article asks why formal commitments have produced so little routine practice and why institutionalization varies so widely across issue areas. Drawing on a legal reading of treaties and domestic law, an event–response chronology of attacks on Chinese nationals in Pakistan (2004–2026), and a content analysis of ten joint statements (2013–2026), the article finds that the framework is high in obligation, moderate in precision, and low in delegation: consultative channels exist, but no joint body holds operational authority. Attacks have changed what the two governments commit to, but cumulatively rather than incident by incident; scheduled diplomacy has largely set the timing of new commitments, and Pakistan’s own investment in protective forces has supplied an anticipatory track. Cooperation has institutionalized fastest where sovereignty costs are low and slowest where it would require foreign security personnel, cross-border evidence, or transfers of data. The China-Pakistan Security Partnership, announced in May 2026 after nineteen months without a lethal attack, suggests a possible shift from crisis-driven to agenda-driven institutionalization. A comparison with the Mekong River joint patrols indicates that routine governance in Pakistan is more likely to rest on standing coordination and host-state capacity, in keeping with cooperation premised on respect for sovereignty, than on joint policing.References
[1] Xinhua News Agency. Convoy Carrying Chinese Personnel Attacked in Besham, Pakistan. March 26, 2024. In Chinese. http://www.news.cn/world/20240326/c7f7880c370448b693e81e3c9f4958d9/c.html.
[2] Gulf News (AFP). Six Killed in Suicide Attack on Chinese Engineers in Pakistan. March 26, 2024. https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/six-killed-in-suicide-attack-on-chinese-engineers-in-pakistan-1.101865552.
[3] Al Arabiya (Reuters). Pakistan Says Suicide Attack That Killed Chinese Engineers Was Planned in Afghanistan. May 7, 2024. https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2024/05/07/pakistan-says-suicide-attack-that-killed-chinese-engineers-was-planned-in-afghanistan.
[4] Malay Mail (Reuters). Chinese Embassy Says Citizens Killed in ‘Terrorist Attack’ in Pakistan. October 7, 2024. https://www.malaymail.com/news/world/2024/10/07/chinese-embassy-says-citizens-killed-in-terrorist-attack-in-pakistan/152795.
[5] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Pakistan. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Beijing, May 26, 2026. https://mofa.gov.pk/press-releases/joint-statement-between-the-peoples-republic-of-china-and-the-islamic-republic-of-pakistan-may-26-2026.
[6] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. The Global Security Initiative Concept Paper. February 21, 2023. Reproduced by The Diplomatic Insight. https://thediplomaticinsight.com/global-security-initiative-concept-paper/.
[7] Abbott K W, Keohane R O, Moravcsik A, et al. The Concept of Legalization. International Organization, 2000, 54(3): 401-419.
[8] Birkland T A. After Disaster: Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1997.
[9] Capoccia G, Kelemen R D. The Study of Critical Junctures: Theory, Narrative, and Counterfactuals in Historical Institutionalism. World Politics, 2007, 59(3): 341-369.
[10] United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 1994: New Dimensions of Human Security. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1994/.
[11] Buzan B, Wæver O, de Wilde J. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998.
[12] Caballero-Anthony M, ed. An Introduction to Non-Traditional Security Studies: A Transnational Approach. London: SAGE, 2016.
[13] Yu X F, ed. Fei chuantong anquan gailun [An Introduction to Non-Traditional Security]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang People’s Publishing House, 2006. In Chinese.
[14] gov.cn. Xi Jinping’s Speech at the First Meeting of the Central National Security Commission. April 15, 2014. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2014-04/15/content_2659641.htm.
[15] National Security Law of the People’s Republic of China. Adopted July 1, 2015. gov.cn. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/c16762/2015-07/01/content_2893902.htm.
[16] Xi J P. Report to the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China. gov.cn, October 25, 2022. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2022-10/25/content_5721685.htm.
[17] State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China. China’s National Security in the New Era. White paper. May 12, 2025. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/202505/content_7023405.htm.
[18] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. November 2, 2022. Reproduced by GlobalSecurity.org. https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/china/2022/11/china-221102-prc-mofa01.htm.
[19] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. February 6, 2025. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/xw/zyxw/202502/t20250206_11550159.html.
[20] Xinhua News Agency. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. May 26, 2026. In Chinese. https://www.news.cn/20260526/7d0f5e1acf834d89a5c0798a81447a81/c.html.
[21] Duchâtel M, Bräuner O, Zhou H. Protecting China’s Overseas Interests: The Slow Shift Away from Non-Interference. SIPRI Policy Paper 41. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2014. https://www.sipri.org/publications/2014/sipri-policy-papers/protecting-chinas-overseas-interests-slow-shift-away-non-interference.
[22] Ghiselli A. Protecting China’s Interests Overseas: Securitization and Foreign Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021.
[23] Legarda H, Nouwens M. Guardians of the Belt and Road: The Internationalization of China’s Private Security Companies. MERICS China Monitor, August 2018. https://www.merics.org/en/china-monitor/guardians-of-belt-and-road.
[24] Arduino A. China’s Private Army: Protecting the New Silk Road. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
[25] Small A. The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia’s New Geopolitics. London: Hurst, 2015.
[26] Wolf S O. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor of the Belt and Road Initiative: Concept, Context and Assessment. Cham: Springer, 2020.
[27] Pantucci R, Petersen A. Sinostan: China’s Inadvertent Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022.
[28] Markey D S. China’s Western Horizon: Beijing and the New Geopolitics of Eurasia. New York: Oxford University Press, 2020.
[29] Nadelmann E A. Cops Across Borders: The Internationalization of U.S. Criminal Law Enforcement. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993.
[30] Andreas P, Nadelmann E. Policing the Globe: Criminalization and Crime Control in International Relations. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
[31] Deflem M. Policing World Society: Historical Foundations of International Police Cooperation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
[32] George A L, Bennett A. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005.
[33] Collier D. Understanding Process Tracing. PS: Political Science & Politics, 2011, 44(4): 823-830.
[34] Sartori G. Concept Misformation in Comparative Politics. American Political Science Review, 1970, 64(4): 1033-1053.
[35] Boundary Agreement between the Government of the People’s Republic of China and the Government of Pakistan. Signed in Peking, March 2, 1963.
[36] Extradition Treaty between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Signed November 3, 2003. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/ziliao_674904/tytj_674911/tyfg_674913/200804/t20080409_9867321.shtml.
[37] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Sixth Periodic Report of China under the Convention against Torture, annex: table of extradition treaties between China and foreign states. In Chinese. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ziliao_674904/tytj_674911/tyfg_674913/201507/t20150710_7949679.shtml.
[38] Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good-Neighborly Relations between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Signed April 5, 2005. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/ziliao_674904/tytj_674911/tyfg_674913/200508/t20050830_9867395.shtml.
[39] Agreement between the Government of the People’s Republic of China and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Cooperation in Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism. Signed April 5, 2005. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ziliao_674904/tytj_674911/tyfg_674913/200804/t20080408_7949559.shtml.
[40] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. NPC Standing Committee Approves the China-Pakistan Agreement on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters. August 29, 2008. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ziliao_674904/tytj_674911/tyfg_674913/200808/t20080829_9867564.shtml.
[41] Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China. Announcement on the Entry into Force of the China-Pakistan Agreement on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters. August 6, 2010. In Chinese. https://www.court.gov.cn/shenpan/xiangqing/2367.html.
[42] Agreement between the Government of the People’s Republic of China and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on the Boundary Regime. Signed May 22, 2013. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/wjb_673085/zfxxgk_674865/gknrlb/tywj/tyqk/201803/t20180329_9867690.shtml.
[43] Associated Press of Pakistan. Pak-China Treaty on Transfer of Convicted Criminals Ratified. April 30, 2020. https://www.app.com.pk/?p=194965.
[44] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. China and the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/ziliao_674904/tytj_674911/tyfg_674913/200804/t20080408_9867554.shtml.
[45] United Nations Treaty Collection. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: Status of Treaty. https://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?chapter=18&clang=_en&mtdsg_no=xviii-12&src=treaty.
[46] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. China and the United Nations Convention against Corruption. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/ziliao_674904/tytj_674911/tyfg_674913/200804/t20080408_7949537.shtml.
[47] United Nations Treaty Collection. United Nations Convention against Corruption: Status of Treaty. https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XVIII-14&chapter=18.
[48] United Nations Treaty Collection. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings: Status. Chapter XVIII-9. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20II/Chapter%20XVIII/XVIII-9.en.pdf.
[49] United Nations Treaty Collection. International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism: Status. Chapter XVIII-11. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20II/Chapter%20XVIII/XVIII-11.en.pdf.
[50] Embassy of Pakistan, Beijing. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Deepening China-Pakistan Strategic and Economic Cooperation. February 19, 2014. https://www.pakbj.org/jointstatements/989.htm.
[51] Associated Press of Pakistan. CPEC Development Does Not Affect China’s Position on Kashmir Issue: FO Spokesperson. March 17, 2017. https://www.app.com.pk/global/cpec-development-does-not-affect-chinas-position-on-kashmir-issue-fo-spokesperson/.
[52] Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China. 1997, as amended. Article 7. In Chinese.
[53] Extradition Law of the People’s Republic of China. Adopted December 28, 2000. Article 8. In Chinese.
[54] Counter-Terrorism Law of the People’s Republic of China. Adopted December 27, 2015; amended April 27, 2018. Articles 69–72. In Chinese. https://www.12371.cn/2020/04/15/ARTI1586917215500415.shtml.
[55] International Criminal Judicial Assistance Law of the People’s Republic of China. Adopted October 26, 2018. Article 4. In Chinese.
[56] Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China. Adopted June 10, 2021. Article 36. In Chinese.
[57] Personal Information Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China. Adopted August 20, 2021. Article 41. In Chinese.
[58] Anti-Telecom and Online Fraud Law of the People’s Republic of China. Adopted September 2, 2022; effective December 1, 2022. Articles 3 and 37. In Chinese.
[59] Government of Pakistan. Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 2010.
[60] Government of Pakistan. Anti-Terrorism Act, 1997. Section 19.
[61] Dawn. JIT Entrusted with Lahore’s Outfall Road Blast. August 27, 2017. https://www.dawn.com/news/1354259.
[62] Government of Pakistan. Mutual Legal Assistance (Criminal Matters) Act, 2020.
[63] Government of Pakistan. Qanun-e-Shahadat Order, 1984.
[64] Government of Pakistan. Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act, 2016.
[65] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Overview of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In Chinese. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjb_673085/zzjg_673183/dozys_673577/dqzzoys_673581/shhz_673583/gk_673585/t1151401.shtml.
[66] Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism. Signed June 15, 2001. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/ziliao_674904/1179_674909/200106/t20010622_7946685.shtml.
[67] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Foreign Ministry Spokesperson’s Regular Press Conference, June 17, 2004 (on the launch of the SCO Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure). In Chinese. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gj_676203/yz_676205/1206_676404/fyrygth_676412/200406/t20040617_7975583.shtml.
[68] Shanghai Cooperation Organization Convention against Terrorism. Signed June 16, 2009. Gazette of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/2023/issue_10466/202305/content_6874702.html.
[69] gov.cn. Pakistan and India Formally Join the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. June 10, 2017. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2017-06/10/content_5201352.htm.
[70] Ambrosio T. Catching the ‘Shanghai Spirit’: How the Shanghai Cooperation Organization Promotes Authoritarian Norms in Central Asia. Europe-Asia Studies, 2008, 60(8): 1321-1344.
[71] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Pakistan. Pakistan and China Hold Counterterrorism Talks. Press release, April 15, 2013. https://mofa.gov.pk/press-releases/pakistan-and-china-hold-counterterrorism-talks.
[72] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Joint Statement of the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Deepening Comprehensive Strategic Cooperation. May 23, 2013. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gj_676203/yz_676205/1206_676308/1207_676320/201305/t20130524_9288485.shtml.
[73] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Strengthening China-Pakistan All-Weather Strategic Cooperative Partnership and Building Closer China-Pakistan Community of Shared Future in the New Era. November 4, 2018. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/zy/gb/202405/t20240531_11367373.html.
[74] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Pakistan. Pakistan-China-Iran Trilateral Consultation on Counter Terrorism and Security. Press release, June 7, 2023. Reproduced by GlobalSecurity.org. https://www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/news/2023/06/sec-230607-pakistan-mfa01.htm.
[75] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Foreign Ministers of China, Afghanistan and Pakistan Hold the Sixth Dialogue. Kabul, August 20, 2025. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/wjbzhd/202508/t20250822_11694221.html.
[76] Xinhua. China’s Police Chief Meets with Pakistan’s Minister for Interior, Narcotics Control. January 8, 2026. Republished by english.www.gov.cn. https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202601/08/content_WS695ef7f2c6d00ca5f9a08798.html.
[77] Center for Research and Security Studies (reproducing Dawn). ‘15,000 Military Personnel Protecting CPEC.’ February 21, 2017. https://crss.pk/?p=18838.
[78] The News. Pakistan to Deploy Another Division for CPEC Security. May 19, 2019. https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/473155-pakistan-to-deploy-another-division-for-cpec-security.
[79] Associated Press of Pakistan. SPU Punjab Launches 24/7 Helpline for Chinese Nationals’ Security, Support. September 10, 2025. https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/spu-punjab-launches-24-7-helpline-for-chinese-nationals-security-support/.
[80] Geo News. Special Protection Unit Being Set Up in Islamabad for Chinese Citizens: Naqvi. January 7, 2026. https://www.geo.tv/latest/643763-special-protection-unit-being-set-up-in-islamabad-for-chinese-citizens-naqvi.
[81] Dawn. ‘Indian-Afghan Nexus’ behind Dasu Bus Attack: Qureshi. August 12, 2021. https://www.dawn.com/news/1640278.
[82] Gazette of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China. ‘East Turkestan Islamic Movement’ Placed on UN Security Council Sanctions List. September 11, 2002. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2002/content_61790.htm.
[83] Pak Institute for Peace Studies. Pakistan Security Report 2025. Islamabad: PIPS, 2026. https://www.pakpips.com/?p=16138.
[84] Al Jazeera. Car Blast Kills Chinese in Pakistan. May 3, 2004. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2004/5/3/car-blast-kills-chinese-in-pakistan.
[85] Al Jazeera. Captive Dies in Pakistan Rescue Bid. October 14, 2004. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2004/10/14/captive-dies-in-pakistan-rescue-bid.
[86] Al Jazeera. Chinese Engineers Killed in Baluchistan. February 15, 2006. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/2/15/chinese-engineers-killed-in-baluchistan.
[87] Al Jazeera. Hostages Freed in Pakistan Standoff. June 23, 2007. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2007/6/23/hostages-freed-in-pakistan-standoff.
[88] China Daily. Three Chinese Killed in Pakistan. July 9, 2007. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-07/09/content_5421741.htm.
[89] Associated Press of Pakistan. Five, Including FC Personnel, Chinese Nationals, Injured in a Blast in Dalbandin. August 11, 2018. https://www.app.com.pk/?p=109713.
[90] Al Jazeera. Gunmen Attack Chinese Consulate in Karachi. November 23, 2018. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/23/gunmen-attack-chinese-consulate-in-karachi.
[91] U.S. Department of State. Press statement on the designation of the Balochistan Liberation Army and the Majeed Brigade as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. August 11, 2025. Reproduced by GlobalSecurity.org. https://www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/news/2025/08/sec-250811-state01.htm.
[92] Arab News Pakistan. Investigators from China Join Pakistan Bus Blast Probe That Killed 9 Chinese. July 18, 2021. https://arabnews.pk/node/1896156.
[93] Al Jazeera. At Least Two Killed in Suicide Bombing in Southwest Pakistan. August 20, 2021. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/20/at-least-two-killed-in-suicide-bombing-in-southwest-pakistan.
[94] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Answers Questions on the Attack on the Confucius Institute Bus at the University of Karachi. April 27, 2022. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/zcjd/202204/t20220427_10674219.shtml.
[95] China.org.cn. Balochistan Liberation Army Claims Responsibility for Karachi Confucius Institute Attack. April 27, 2022. In Chinese. http://henan.china.com.cn/m/2022-04/27/content_41954186.html.
[96] CCTV.com. Sindh Province Announces Arrest of Main Suspect in Karachi Confucius Institute Attack. July 5, 2022. In Chinese. https://news.cctv.com/2022/07/05/ARTIgLvqEu2Xxi4rYBeXRauT220705.shtml.
[97] Al Jazeera. Pakistan Security Forces Kill Two after Attack on Chinese Convoy in Gwadar. August 13, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/13/pakistan-security-forces-kill-two-after-attack-on-chinese-convoy-in-gwadar.
[98] Al Jazeera. Pakistan’s Gwadar Port Attacked, Eight Armed Fighters Killed. March 20, 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/20/pakistans-gwadar-port-attacked-eight-armed-fighters-killed.
[99] CCTV.com. Pakistan Says 11 People Involved in the Besham Attack Have Been Arrested. May 27, 2024. In Chinese. https://news.cctv.com/2024/05/27/ARTIWU2QKNQGwVyhOEm8dVPX240527.shtml.
[100] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Beijing, June 7, 2024. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/xw/zyxw/202406/t20240609_11415904.html.
[101] Dawn. Govt Unleashes Offensive to ‘Decisively’ End Terrorism. June 23, 2024. https://www.dawn.com/news/1841395.
[102] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Joint Statement between the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People’s Republic of China. Islamabad, October 15, 2024. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/xw/zyxw/202410/t20241016_11508330.html.
[103] Aaj News (Reuters). Beijing Pushes to Join Security Efforts for Citizens in Pakistan, Say Sources. November 12, 2024. https://english.aaj.tv/news/330388466.
[104] ABC News (AP). Pakistani Guard Shoots, Wounds 2 Chinese Working in a Textile Mill in Karachi. November 5, 2024. https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/pakistani-guard-shoots-wound-2-chinese-working-textile-115505344.
[105] Government of the People’s Republic of China and Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Action Plan for Building an Even Closer China-Pakistan Community with a Shared Future in the New Era (2025–2029). People’s Daily, September 5, 2025. In Chinese. https://paper.people.com.cn/rmrb/pc/content/202509/05/content_30102945.html.
[106] gov.cn. Li Keqiang Visits Pakistan; the Two Sides Issue a Joint Statement on Deepening the All-Round Strategic Cooperative Partnership. May 23, 2013. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/guowuyuan/2013-05/23/content_2591481.htm.
[107] Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Establishing the All-Weather Strategic Cooperative Partnership. gov.cn, April 20, 2015. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-04/21/content_2850064.htm.
[108] Huanqiu.com. Ambassador Yao Jing on the Number of Chinese Nationals in Pakistan. 2020. In Chinese. https://world.huanqiu.com/article/3xerbEhHghY.
[109] gov.cn. Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Answers Questions on the Besham Terrorist Attack. March 26, 2024. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/lianbo/bumen/202403/content_6941806.htm.
[110] Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the United Nations. UN Security Council Issues Press Statement on the Besham Terrorist Attack. March 27, 2024. In Chinese. https://un.china-mission.gov.cn/chn/zgylhg/jjalh/202403/t20240327_11272037.htm.
[111] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Pakistan. Joint Press Communique of the Seventh Round of China-Pakistan Foreign Ministers’ Strategic Dialogue. January 5, 2026. https://mofa.gov.pk/press-releases/joint-press-communique-of-the-seventh-round-of-china-pakistan-foreign-ministers-strategic-dialogue.
[112] Ministry of National Defense of the People’s Republic of China. SCO Joint Counterterrorism Exercise Pabbi-Antiterror-2021. October 2021. In Chinese. http://www.mod.gov.cn/gfbw/jsxd/fk/4896151.html.
[113] The Express Tribune. Pakistan, China Joint Anti-Terrorist Exercise Concludes. October 4, 2021. https://tribune.com.pk/story/2323273/pakistan-china-joint-anti-terrorist-exercise-concludes.
[114] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Establishing the All-Weather Strategic Cooperative Partnership. April 20, 2015. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/gjhdq_676201/gj_676203/yz_676205/1206_676308/1207_676320/201504/t20150421_9288487.shtml.
[115] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Joint Statement between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. February 6, 2022. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/gjhdq_665435/2675_665437/2757_663518/2758_663520/202202/t20220206_10639501.html.
[116] gov.cn. Xi Jinping and President Arif Alvi Exchange Congratulatory Messages on the 70th Anniversary of China-Pakistan Diplomatic Relations. May 21, 2021. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2021-05/21/content_5610126.htm.
[117] China.org.cn Belt and Road Portal. China-Pakistan Economic Corridor: Investment and Progress. May 9, 2026. In Chinese. http://ydyl.china.com.cn/2026-05/09/content_118485096.shtml.
[118] Al Jazeera. Pakistan Says Afghanistan Talks Deadlocked after Deadly Border Clashes. November 7, 2025. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/11/7/pakistan-says-afghanistan-talks-deadlocked-after-deadly-border-clashes.
[119] Arab News Pakistan. Pakistan, China Agree to Closer Counterterrorism Cooperation over Afghanistan Militancy Concerns. June 2, 2026. https://www.arabnews.pk/node/2645718.
[120] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Foreign Ministry Spokesperson’s Remarks. May 7, 2025. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/xw/fyrbt/202505/t20250507_11616523.html.
[121] Al Jazeera. US Removes Group Condemned by China from ‘Terror’ List. November 7, 2020. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/7/us-removes-group-condemned-by-china-from-terror-list.
[122] South China Morning Post. China Accuses US of Double Standards as It Drops ETIM from Terrorism List. November 2020. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3108846/china-accuses-us-double-standards-it-drops-etim-terrorism-list.
[123] Times of Islamabad. US, UK and France Block Pakistan-China Proposal to Designate BLA and Majeed Brigade. June 11, 2026. https://timesofislamabad.com/11-06-2026/us-uk-and-france-block-pakistan-china-proposal-to-designate-bla-and-majeed-brigade/.
[124] United Nations Security Council. Resolution 2253 (2015), S/RES/2253, December 17, 2015.
[125] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Algeria. Official of the MPS Narcotics Control Bureau on China-Pakistan Counternarcotics Cooperation. July 14, 2004. In Chinese. https://dz.china-embassy.gov.cn/xw/200407/t20040714_6851643.htm.
[126] China Narcotics Control News. Tashkurgan-Sust Border Counternarcotics Liaison Offices Unveiled. October 2018. In Chinese. http://m.toutiao.com/group/6607490870553870852/.
[127] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2024: Contemporary Issues. Vienna: UNODC, 2024. https://digitallibrary.un.org/nanna/record/4091940/files/WDR24_Contemporary_issues.pdf.
[128] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2025, Chinese-language summary. Vienna: UNODC, 2025. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/WDR2025/2511227C.pdf.
[129] United Nations Geneva. Afghanistan Opium Cultivation 2025. News release, November 6, 2025. https://www.ungeneva.org/en/news-media/news/2025/11/112574/afghanistan-opium-cultivation-drops-sharply-regional-trafficking.
[130] ARY News. Cabinet Approves MoU on Pak-China Cyber-Security Cooperation. March 11, 2025. https://arynews.tv/cabinet-approves-mou-on-pak-china-cyber-security-cooperation.
[131] Financial Action Task Force. Public Statement, June 2018. Paris, June 29, 2018. https://www.fatf-gafi.org/content/fatf-gafi/en/publications/High-risk-and-other-monitored-jurisdictions/Public-statement-june-2018.html.
[132] Financial Action Task Force. Outcomes FATF Plenary, 20–21 October 2022. Paris, October 21, 2022. https://www.fatf-gafi.org/en/publications/Fatfgeneral/Outcomes-fatf-plenary-october-2022.html.
[133] Financial Action Task Force. Mr Xiangmin Liu, FATF President (2019–2020). https://www.fatf-gafi.org/en/the-fatf/fatf-presidency/mr--xiangmin-liu---fatf-president--2019-2020-.html.
[134] Financial Monitoring Unit, Government of Pakistan. About Us. https://www.fmu.gov.pk/about-us/.
[135] People’s Daily Online. ‘Sky Net 2026’ Operation Launched. April 3, 2026. Reprinted from the website of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection and the National Supervisory Commission. In Chinese. http://fanfu.people.com.cn/n1/2026/0403/c64371-40694530.html.
[136] Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China. Interpol National Central Bureau of China Helps Pakistan Arrest a Pakistani Fugitive Wanted under a Red Notice. June 2021. In Chinese. https://www.mps.gov.cn/n2255079/n6865805/n7355741/n7355774/c7931886/content.html.
[137] gov.cn. Khunjerab Port Moves from Seasonal to Year-Round Opening. December 1, 2024. In Chinese. https://www.gov.cn/lianbo/difang/202412/content_6990473.htm.
[138] State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China. China’s Assistance after the 2005 South Asia Earthquake. January 18, 2006. In Chinese. http://www.scio.gov.cn/xwfb/gwyxwbgsxwfbh/fbh/202307/t20230704_722407_m.html.
[139] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. China International Search and Rescue Team Departs for Pakistan. October 9, 2005. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ziliao_674904/zt_674979/ywzt_675099/2005year_675849/zggznydzzq_675871/200510/t20051009_7963206.shtml.
[140] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. China International Search and Rescue Team among the First to Reach Hard-Hit Balakot. October 23, 2005. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ziliao_674904/zt_674979/ywzt_675099/2005year_675849/zggznydzzq_675871/200510/t20051023_7963241.shtml.
[141] Government of Pakistan, Asian Development Bank, European Union, United Nations Development Programme, and World Bank. Pakistan Floods 2022: Post-Disaster Needs Assessment. Islamabad, October 2022. https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2022-10/Pakistan-Floods-2022-PDNA-Main-Report.pdf.
[142] China International Development Cooperation Agency. Chinese Government Provides RMB 100 Million in Emergency Humanitarian Assistance to Pakistan. August 30, 2022. In Chinese. http://www.cidca.gov.cn/2022-08/30/c_1211680812.htm.
[143] China International Development Cooperation Agency. Chinese Government Provides an Additional RMB 300 Million in Relief Supplies to Pakistan. September 3, 2022. In Chinese. http://www.cidca.gov.cn/2022-09-03/c_1211681966.htm.
[144] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Signed Article by Ambassador to Pakistan Nong Rong. November 10, 2022. In Chinese. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/zwbd_674895/202211/t20221110_10941735.shtml.
[145] China International Development Cooperation Agency. Fighting the Epidemic: China’s Foreign Assistance. White paper. In Chinese. http://www.cidca.gov.cn/download/gjhzyq.pdf.
[146] Belt and Road Portal. China-Pakistan Earth Sciences Research Center Signs Cooperation Agreement with Pakistan’s National Disaster Management University. April 26, 2024. In Chinese. https://www.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/0BMHLR7H.html.
[147] Al Jazeera. China Begins Joint Patrols along Mekong River. December 10, 2011. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2011/12/10/china-begins-joint-patrols-along-mekong-river.
[148] China Daily. 159th Joint Patrol of Mekong River Begins. November 26, 2025. https://regional.chinadaily.com.cn/capgcen/2025-11/26/c_1143822.htm.